Hebron glass HistoryThe glass industry in Hebron ("al-Khalil") was established during Roman rule in Palestine (63 BCE-330 CE). As the ancient Phoenician glass industry shrank from the exposed cities along the eastern Mediterranean coastline, the industry migrated inland, to Hebron in particular. Glass artifacts from Hebron dating to the first and second centuries have been found, and are on exhibit as part of the Drake Collection. Stained glass windows which are made of Hebron glass, dating to the 12th century, are found in the structure built over the Cave of Machpelah, which served as a church during the Crusader era in Palestine. Another example of stained glass windows produced in Hebron are those at the Dome of the Rock in Old Jerusalem. While acknowledging that glass production in Palestine dates back to Roman period, Nazmi Ju'beh, director of RIWAQ: Centre for Architectural Conservation, contends that the practices of today's glass industry in Hebron most likely began in the 13th century CE. He notes that one theory claims that the techniques used today were imported from Venice, while other researchers claim that the Crusaders carried this tradition from Hebron with them to Europe, and that its origins may be Syrian. Historical references from the 14th century indicate that Hebron glass factories flourished at this time with no less than fourteen factories, all located in the Old City. The industry ended up occupying a distinct quarter in the Old City which today still carries the name of the "Glass-Blower Quarter" or Harat al-Zajajeen. Glass Works, photo taken 1900-1920 by American Colony, Jerusalem.armband , With such a large number of factories, Hebron glass was exported to Egypt, Syria, and the Transjordan. Camel caravans carried Hebron glass in specially designed wooden boxes that were guarded by both official armies and private guards. Glass merchants in Hebron managed to develop mercantile networks with al-Karak (Crac) in southern Jordan and Cairo in Egypt, which further helped to market the products. Since at least the 16th century, communities of Hebron expatriates became established in these two cities, and a whole social network emerged around the glass industry, which became a major employer, contributing greatly to the wealth of factory owners. Traditionally, the items produced were functional: cups, bottles, bowls, jugs, dishes, olive oil lamps, and later, various forms of petrol lamps. Palestinians in the aftermath of the Second Intifada, glass production has been considerably reduced. According to Nazmi al-Ju'bah, the director of RIWAQ: Centre for Architectural Conservation, if the present situation continues, the Hebron glass-blowing industry's main challenge could be survival. ProductionHebron glass was traditionally produced using sand from the village of Bani Na'im, east of Hebron, and sodium carbonate taken from the Dead Sea. Traditionally, the intense colours of Hebron glass included dark and light blue, turquoise, dark red (Bordeaux), and light and dark green. These colours were produced by adding metal oxides, such as those from iron and copper. Copper oxide is still used today to colour Hebron glass. Instead of sand, the raw material used to make Hebron glass today is primarily recycled glass, which is gathered from local houses, brought to the factory to be smashed, and re-melted. Carefully moving molten glass as part of the modern production processThe precise production process is a trade secret, which is maintained by the few Palestinian families who run the factories which continue to produce Hebron glass today. Glassmaking at Hebron is an art that is based on apprenticeship. The apprentices are trained under a master from childhood and essentially grow up in the factory. Masters generally believe that adults are unsuited to learning the craft of glass production, and one master has said, "You can learn to play the 'oud at any age, but unless you begin [glasswork] as a child, you will never become a master. "According to the Holy Land Handicraft Cooperative Society, the blowing technique employed is the same as was used by the ancient Phoenicians, though archaeologists and historians of glass agree that glassblowing was not common until the last few centuries BCE.